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| en:safeav:as:autolevels [2025/10/12 16:16] – [Levels of Drone Autonomy] rczyba | en:safeav:as:autolevels [2025/10/20 11:05] (current) – [Levels of Drone Autonomy] rczyba |
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| {{:en:iot-open:czapka_b.png?50| Bachelors (1st level) classification icon }} | {{:en:iot-open:czapka_b.png?50| Bachelors (1st level) classification icon }} |
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| <todo @rczyba #rczyba:2025-09-18></todo> | <todo @rczyba #rczyba:2025-10-12></todo> |
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| Autonomy of unmanned systems refers to their ability to self-manage, make decisions, and complete tasks with minimal or no human intervention. The scope of autonomy ranges from zero to full capability, often defined through models, and encompasses four fundamental functions: perception, orientation, problem-solving (planning), and action. Advances in autonomy enable unmanned systems to learn, adapt to changing environmental conditions, and perform complex tasks, driving innovation in various fields. | Autonomy of unmanned systems refers to their ability to self-manage, make decisions, and complete tasks with minimal or no human intervention. The scope of autonomy ranges from zero to full capability, often defined through models, and encompasses four fundamental functions: perception, orientation, problem-solving (planning), and action. Advances in autonomy enable unmanned systems to learn, adapt to changing environmental conditions, and perform complex tasks, driving innovation in various fields. |
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| <figure Ref.Pic.1> | <figure Ref.Pic.1> |
| {{ :logotyp_1_-_fb_-_square.png?nolink&200 | SAE International classification}} | {{ :en:safeav:as:pic1_loa_automotive.png?600 |}} |
| <caption>Levels of autonomous driving - SAE International classification [1]</caption> | <caption>Levels of autonomous driving - SAE International classification ((https://www.eloy.co.uk/insights/driverless-cars-the-5-levels-of-automation/))</caption> |
| </figure> | </figure> |
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| ===== Levels of Drone Autonomy ===== | ===== Levels of Drone Autonomy ===== |
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| In general, autonomy or autonomous capability is defined in the context of decision-making or self-governance within a system. According to the Aerospace Technology Institute (ATI), autonomous systems can essentially decide independently how to achieve mission objectives, without human intervention [2]. These systems are also capable of learning and adapting to changing operating environment conditions. However, autonomy may depend on the design, functions, and specifics of the mission or system [3]. Autonomy can be broadly viewed as a spectrum of capabilities, from zero autonomy to full autonomy. The Pilot Authorization and Task Control (PACT) model assigns authorization levels, from level 0 (full pilot authority) to level 5 (full system autonomy), also used in the automotive industry for autonomous vehicles (see Figure {{ref>Ref.Pic.2}}) [2]. | In general, autonomy or autonomous capability is defined in the context of decision-making or self-governance within a system. According to the Aerospace Technology Institute (ATI), autonomous systems can essentially decide independently how to achieve mission objectives, without human intervention ((INSIGHT. The Journey Towards Autonomy in Civil Aerospace. Technical report. Cranfield, United Kingdom: Aerospace Technology Institute (ATI); 2020)). These systems are also capable of learning and adapting to changing operating environment conditions. However, autonomy may depend on the design, functions, and specifics of the mission or system ((Chen H, Wang XM, Li Y. A Survey of Autonomous Control for UAV. Washington, D.C., United States: IEEE Computer Society; 2009)). Autonomy can be broadly viewed as a spectrum of capabilities, from zero autonomy to full autonomy. The Pilot Authorization and Task Control (PACT) model assigns authorization levels, from level 0 (full pilot authority) to level 5 (full system autonomy), also used in the automotive industry for autonomous vehicles (see Figure {{ref>Ref.Pic.2}}). |
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| <figure Ref.Pic.2> | <figure Ref.Pic.2> |
| {{ :logotyp_1_-_fb_-_square.png?nolink&200 | Pilot authority}} | {{ :en:safeav:as:pic3.png?600 |}} |
| <caption>Pilot authority and tasks control [2]</caption> | <caption>Pilot authority and tasks control [2]</caption> |
| </figure> | </figure> |
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| <figure Ref.Pic.3> | <figure Ref.Pic.3> |
| {{ :logotyp_1_-_fb_-_square.png?nolink&200 | Levels of Drone Autonomy}} | {{ :en:safeav:as:pic4_loa_drone.png?600 |}} |
| <caption>Levels of Drone Autonomy [4]</caption> | <caption>Levels of Drone Autonomy ((https://droneii.com/drone-autonomy?srsltid=AfmBOorGZxbiXskupiw9dLFzHPLMkuXeV_Aoyl0R9rVcSWhW3UvNBDaU))</caption> |
| </figure> | </figure> |
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| * **Level 5 – Full Autonomy:** The drone controls itself independently in any situation, without the need for human intervention. This includes full automation of all flight tasks in all conditions. Currently, such drones do not yet exist. However, it is expected that in the near future, they will be able to utilize artificial intelligence tools for flight planning—in other words, autonomous learning systems with the ability to modify routine behavior. | * **Level 5 – Full Autonomy:** The drone controls itself independently in any situation, without the need for human intervention. This includes full automation of all flight tasks in all conditions. Currently, such drones do not yet exist. However, it is expected that in the near future, they will be able to utilize artificial intelligence tools for flight planning—in other words, autonomous learning systems with the ability to modify routine behavior. |
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| Another general but useful model describing autonomy levels in unmanned systems is the Autonomy Levels for Unmanned Systems (ALFUS) model [5]. European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), in one of its technical reports, provided some information on autonomy levels and guidelines for human-autonomy interactions. According to EASA, the concept of autonomy, its levels, and human-autonomous system interactions are not established and remain actively discussed in various areas (including aviation), as there is currently no common understanding of these terms [6]. Since these concepts are still somewhat developmental, this becomes a huge challenge for the unmanned aircraft regulatory environment as they remain largely unestablished. | Another general but useful model describing autonomy levels in unmanned systems is the Autonomy Levels for Unmanned Systems (ALFUS) model ((Chen TB. Management of Multiple Heterogenous Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Through Capacity Transparency [thesis]. Queensland, Australia: Queensland University of Technology; 2016)). European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), in one of its technical reports, provided some information on autonomy levels and guidelines for human-autonomy interactions. According to EASA, the concept of autonomy, its levels, and human-autonomous system interactions are not established and remain actively discussed in various areas (including aviation), as there is currently no common understanding of these terms ((EASA. Easy Access Rules for Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Technical report. Cologne, Germany: European Union Aviation Safety Agency; 2022)). Since these concepts are still somewhat developmental, this becomes a huge challenge for the unmanned aircraft regulatory environment as they remain largely unestablished. |
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| The classification of autonomy levels in multi-drone systems is somewhat different. In multi-drone systems, several drones cooperate to perform a specific task. Designing multi-drone systems requires that individual drones have an increased level of autonomy. The classification of autonomy levels is directly related to the division into flights performed within the pilot's or observer's line of sight (VLOS) and flights performed beyond the pilot's line of sight (BVLOS), where particular attention is paid to flight safety. One way to address the autonomy issue is to classify the autonomy of drones and multi-drone systems into levels related to the hierarchy of tasks performed [7]. These levels will have standard definitions and protocols that will guide technology development and regulatory oversight. For single-drone autonomy models, two distinct levels are proposed: the vehicle control layer (Level 1) and the mission control layer (Level 2), see Figure {{ref>Ref.Pic.4}}. Multi-drone systems, on the other hand, have three levels: single-vehicle control (Level 1), multi-vehicle control (Level 2), and mission control (Level 3). In this hierarchical structure, Level 3 has the lowest priority and can be overridden by Levels 2 or 1. | The classification of autonomy levels in multi-drone systems is somewhat different. In multi-drone systems, several drones cooperate to perform a specific task. Designing multi-drone systems requires that individual drones have an increased level of autonomy. The classification of autonomy levels is directly related to the division into flights performed within the pilot's or observer's line of sight (VLOS) and flights performed beyond the pilot's line of sight (BVLOS), where particular attention is paid to flight safety. One way to address the autonomy issue is to classify the autonomy of drones and multi-drone systems into levels related to the hierarchy of tasks performed ((D. Cvetković, Ed., ‘Drones - Various Applications’. IntechOpen, Dec. 08, 2023. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.1000551)). These levels will have standard definitions and protocols that will guide technology development and regulatory oversight. For single-drone autonomy models, two distinct levels are proposed: the vehicle control layer (Level 1) and the mission control layer (Level 2), see Figure {{ref>Ref.Pic.4}}. Multi-drone systems, on the other hand, have three levels: single-vehicle control (Level 1), multi-vehicle control (Level 2), and mission control (Level 3). In this hierarchical structure, Level 3 has the lowest priority and can be overridden by Levels 2 or 1. |
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| <figure Ref.Pic.4> | <figure Ref.Pic.4> |
| {{ :logotyp_1_-_fb_-_square.png?nolink&200 | Autonomy Levels for Multi-Drone Systems}} | {{ :en:safeav:as:pic5_loa_multi.png?400 |}} |
| <caption>Autonomy Levels for Multi-Drone Systems</caption> | <caption>Autonomy Levels for Multi-Drone Systems</caption> |
| </figure> | </figure> |
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| ==== Bibliography ==== | |
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